
UPLAND AND LOWLAND RICE
PRODUCTION IN TROPICAL
PRODUCTION IN TROPICAL
REGION OF NIGERIA
Introduction
Rice (Ory/a saliva L.) is
one of the leading food crops of the world. Demand for rice is rapidly increasing
in West Africa. Nigeria imports more than 80% of its rice requirement. Local
production is low and efforts to increase production are hindered by high input
costs, low prices for rice, and low yields, especially in the uplands. This is
true in most West African nations. There is an urgent need tor cultivars and
production technologies in the both the upland and lowland ecosystems that will
help increase yields at lower monetary costs. Upland rice is mainly grown under
a shifting cultivation system. This involves slashing and burning of virgin
forest to acquire new and more fertile lands. Environmental concerns and
increasing human density are discouraging this practice and research on
permanent cropping of the land is being promoted. One strategy to facilitate
cultivation of the same piece of upland rice field withoul yield loss and
without high input of human labor, fossil energy, feriili/er, and herbicide is
the use of low input rice varieties. These varieties present a major challenge
for research because upland rice often needs a higher level of fertilization
than does lowland rice. The West Africa Rice Development Association (VVARDA)
is developing low input varieties primarily from selections among African
varieties and exotic varieties. In a 3 – year varietal screening exercise,
conducted in the Nigeria, cu WAR 377 B 16 LB LB and WABs6 125, bred by
WARDA were found to be higher yielding and more stable than the commonly used
Asian variety (Peking) aL low fertilizer application rates. The low – input
varieties were also found to have higher NUE than the Asian variety (Peking).
In lowland rice farming, water control is the most important management
practice that determines the efficacy of other production inputs.
one of the leading food crops of the world. Demand for rice is rapidly increasing
in West Africa. Nigeria imports more than 80% of its rice requirement. Local
production is low and efforts to increase production are hindered by high input
costs, low prices for rice, and low yields, especially in the uplands. This is
true in most West African nations. There is an urgent need tor cultivars and
production technologies in the both the upland and lowland ecosystems that will
help increase yields at lower monetary costs. Upland rice is mainly grown under
a shifting cultivation system. This involves slashing and burning of virgin
forest to acquire new and more fertile lands. Environmental concerns and
increasing human density are discouraging this practice and research on
permanent cropping of the land is being promoted. One strategy to facilitate
cultivation of the same piece of upland rice field withoul yield loss and
without high input of human labor, fossil energy, feriili/er, and herbicide is
the use of low input rice varieties. These varieties present a major challenge
for research because upland rice often needs a higher level of fertilization
than does lowland rice. The West Africa Rice Development Association (VVARDA)
is developing low input varieties primarily from selections among African
varieties and exotic varieties. In a 3 – year varietal screening exercise,
conducted in the Nigeria, cu WAR 377 B 16 LB LB and WABs6 125, bred by
WARDA were found to be higher yielding and more stable than the commonly used
Asian variety (Peking) aL low fertilizer application rates. The low – input
varieties were also found to have higher NUE than the Asian variety (Peking).
In lowland rice farming, water control is the most important management
practice that determines the efficacy of other production inputs.
Poor drainage that keeps
soil saturated is detrimental to crops and degrades soil quality. In many rice
irrigation systems in Nigeria, water control is highly inefficient. Drainage
mechanisms are dysfunctional or inadequate because farmers believe that rice
grows best when water is supplied in abundance. Poor drainage mechanisms makes
it necessary for farmers to transplant tall, very old seedlings, usually 4 ~ 6
weeks old, and 3 – 4 seedlings per hill. Rice fields are kept continuously
flooded and are flood – free only at time of harvest. This practice is not only
wasteful in terms of water use efficiency, but also leads to leaching of
soluble nutrients, blocks aerobic soil microbial activities and biological
nitrogen fixation as well as slows minerali/ation and nutrient release from the
soil complexes. New management practices that address lowland rice production
constraints in Nigeria are needed. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI),
used in Madagascar, proposes a methodology that has the potential to increase
rice productivity without a high investment in external inputs or introduction
of new cultivars. SRI changes the ways in which plant, soil, water and
nutrients arc managed. In 2000, 2001, and 2002, SRI experiments were conducted
in Nigeria. The SRI water management practices of repeated soil wetting and
drying were found to be beneficial to rice plant growth probably through
increased biological nitrogen fixation, more nutrient availability, profuse
root development, increased tillering, and a high panicle setting ratio leading
to higher grain yields. Grain yields of rice under SRI management are 2 – 3
times higher than the national average in Nigeria.
soil saturated is detrimental to crops and degrades soil quality. In many rice
irrigation systems in Nigeria, water control is highly inefficient. Drainage
mechanisms are dysfunctional or inadequate because farmers believe that rice
grows best when water is supplied in abundance. Poor drainage mechanisms makes
it necessary for farmers to transplant tall, very old seedlings, usually 4 ~ 6
weeks old, and 3 – 4 seedlings per hill. Rice fields are kept continuously
flooded and are flood – free only at time of harvest. This practice is not only
wasteful in terms of water use efficiency, but also leads to leaching of
soluble nutrients, blocks aerobic soil microbial activities and biological
nitrogen fixation as well as slows minerali/ation and nutrient release from the
soil complexes. New management practices that address lowland rice production
constraints in Nigeria are needed. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI),
used in Madagascar, proposes a methodology that has the potential to increase
rice productivity without a high investment in external inputs or introduction
of new cultivars. SRI changes the ways in which plant, soil, water and
nutrients arc managed. In 2000, 2001, and 2002, SRI experiments were conducted
in Nigeria. The SRI water management practices of repeated soil wetting and
drying were found to be beneficial to rice plant growth probably through
increased biological nitrogen fixation, more nutrient availability, profuse
root development, increased tillering, and a high panicle setting ratio leading
to higher grain yields. Grain yields of rice under SRI management are 2 – 3
times higher than the national average in Nigeria.
UPLAND RICE PRODUCTION
Growing Upland Rice in Nigeria
Choice of Land
i.
Select site in ecological zones where
rice is grown traditionally.
Select site in ecological zones where
rice is grown traditionally.
ii.
Choose fertile land with good water
retention capacity (contain some clay and/or organic matter i.e. loamy soil),
Choose fertile land with good water
retention capacity (contain some clay and/or organic matter i.e. loamy soil),
iii.
If you have to grow rice for one or more
consecutive year on the same piece of land, seek the advice of Soil Survey and
Testing Service of the Institute
of Agricultural Research and Training (JAR&T) or any other reputable
soil-testing unit.
If you have to grow rice for one or more
consecutive year on the same piece of land, seek the advice of Soil Survey and
Testing Service of the Institute
of Agricultural Research and Training (JAR&T) or any other reputable
soil-testing unit.
iv.
Grow legumes after rice, and plough rice
residues into the soil as organic matter.
Grow legumes after rice, and plough rice
residues into the soil as organic matter.
Land Preparation
1) MECHANISATION: (Forest Area)
For newly cleared
areas, stump big trees before the rains preferably from November to February
and remove all stumps, roots and trees before ploughing. Plough once and disc
harrow twice with the first rains from late February to early March to make
good tilt if land is flat. Plough twice and disc harrow once if land is sloppy.
Apply basal fertilizer before final harrowing. Divide the field into plots of
50 or loom2. Construct bunds depending upon the slope, to accumulate
rain water. Level the land to reduce erosion. For consecutive
cropping, take necessary
soil conservation measures in
land preparation.
For newly cleared
areas, stump big trees before the rains preferably from November to February
and remove all stumps, roots and trees before ploughing. Plough once and disc
harrow twice with the first rains from late February to early March to make
good tilt if land is flat. Plough twice and disc harrow once if land is sloppy.
Apply basal fertilizer before final harrowing. Divide the field into plots of
50 or loom2. Construct bunds depending upon the slope, to accumulate
rain water. Level the land to reduce erosion. For consecutive
cropping, take necessary
soil conservation measures in
land preparation.
2) MANUAL CULTIVATION: Clear and
pack bush between November and February, and use hoe
to remove bush and weeds. In the Savannah,
land preparation can
start in February, depending on the rain.
pack bush between November and February, and use hoe
to remove bush and weeds. In the Savannah,
land preparation can
start in February, depending on the rain.
Recommended Varieties
EARLY MATURING
Faro 38 (IRAT 133), FARO 39 (IRAT 144),
FARO 45 (ITA 257), FARO 46 (ITA
150).
FARO 45 (ITA 257), FARO 46 (ITA
150).
MEDIUM MATURING
FARO n(OS 6), FARO 48 (ita 128), FARO 47
(ITA 117), FARO 48 (ITA 301), FARO 49
(ITA 315)
(ITA 117), FARO 48 (ITA 301), FARO 49
(ITA 315)
Time of Planting
(i)
In the forest area, plant in
mid-March to mid-April, after 2 to 3 good rains.
In the forest area, plant in
mid-March to mid-April, after 2 to 3 good rains.
(ii)
In the savannah, plant rice
in mid-May to Mid-June, depending on the rains.
In the savannah, plant rice
in mid-May to Mid-June, depending on the rains.
SEED RATE
60 kg/ha by dibbling; 50-55 kg/ha by
drilling in rows spaced 30 cm apart; and 80 00 kg/ha by broadcasting.
drilling in rows spaced 30 cm apart; and 80 00 kg/ha by broadcasting.
PLANT POPULATION
In dibbling or direct
seeding, sow seeds 25 x 25 cm to give 160,000 stands/ha. Use a
“pinch” or 4 to 5 seeds paddy per hole. Plant about 3-5cm deep, cover
lightly and press. In drilling method, drill in rows 15-20 cm apart.
seeding, sow seeds 25 x 25 cm to give 160,000 stands/ha. Use a
“pinch” or 4 to 5 seeds paddy per hole. Plant about 3-5cm deep, cover
lightly and press. In drilling method, drill in rows 15-20 cm apart.
Fertilizer Rate and Time of
Application
Application
Undertake soil test before
any fertilizer application. Do not apply any fertilizer on newly cleared land
in the first year.
any fertilizer application. Do not apply any fertilizer on newly cleared land
in the first year.
FERTILIZER RATE
(i) BASAL FERTILIZER OR
FIRST APPLICATION: Where basal
fertilizer is applied, use phosphate and potash fertilizer in deficient soils
at final harrowing before seeding. After bush burning, no phosphate and potash
fertilizer are needed. Apply 100kg of 15-15-15 per hectare (2 bags/ha) as basal
fertili/.er or just at the lime of first
weeding (2-3 weeks after emergence) to facilitate incorporation of fertilizer
into the soil.
FIRST APPLICATION: Where basal
fertilizer is applied, use phosphate and potash fertilizer in deficient soils
at final harrowing before seeding. After bush burning, no phosphate and potash
fertilizer are needed. Apply 100kg of 15-15-15 per hectare (2 bags/ha) as basal
fertili/.er or just at the lime of first
weeding (2-3 weeks after emergence) to facilitate incorporation of fertilizer
into the soil.
(ii) SECOND APPLICATION OF TOP DRESSING: Apply 50 kg (one bag) of Urea per hectare—5 weeks after
sowing. In areas where acidity is high, do NOT use Sulphate of Ammonia but use other
sources of nitrogen e.g. urea.
sowing. In areas where acidity is high, do NOT use Sulphate of Ammonia but use other
sources of nitrogen e.g. urea.
METHOD OF APPLICATION
By drilling or broadcasting,
ensuring incorporation into the soil. Apply fertilizer at 10 cm from base of
plant (hill application) immediately after a sufficient rain.
ensuring incorporation into the soil. Apply fertilizer at 10 cm from base of
plant (hill application) immediately after a sufficient rain.
(i)
Iron Deficiency: When the soil is deficient in organic matter and iron, the
seedlings turn yellow
then white a
week after germination. They
later die.
Iron Deficiency: When the soil is deficient in organic matter and iron, the
seedlings turn yellow
then white a
week after germination. They
later die.
• Spray 1% ferrous
sulphate with 0.2% citric acid or lemon at 500 liters/ha once or twice
depending on the recovery of plants.
sulphate with 0.2% citric acid or lemon at 500 liters/ha once or twice
depending on the recovery of plants.
• Apply iron chelates and
urea in between rows at 25 kg/ha.
urea in between rows at 25 kg/ha.
(ii) Zinc Deficiency
• Apply 25 kg/ha /inc sulphate (20% zinc) or
• Spray 1% /inc sulphate with 0.5% lime at 500
Itr/ha to the base as symptoms are seen.
Itr/ha to the base as symptoms are seen.
WEED CONTROL
Hand Weeding
First weeding should be
thorough and should be done within 2 to 3 weeks after emergence, using hoe
instead of cutlass (The earlier the first weeding is done the better).
thorough and should be done within 2 to 3 weeks after emergence, using hoe
instead of cutlass (The earlier the first weeding is done the better).
Second weeding should be
done 6 to 7 weeks after emergence. Weed a third time, if necessary.
done 6 to 7 weeks after emergence. Weed a third time, if necessary.
Chemical Control
1)
Pre-emergence: Apply RonstarTM 25(EC) 2-3 days after sowing or just after seeding
at the rate of 4-6 litres/ha. Spray GramoxcTM at 2 Itr/ha when weeds have grown
in the field. DO NOT spray GramoxcTM after the germination of paddy seeds.
Pre-emergence: Apply RonstarTM 25(EC) 2-3 days after sowing or just after seeding
at the rate of 4-6 litres/ha. Spray GramoxcTM at 2 Itr/ha when weeds have grown
in the field. DO NOT spray GramoxcTM after the germination of paddy seeds.
2)
Post-emergence: Apply RonstarTM (PL) 14 to 21 days after planting at the rate of
5-6 litres/ha. Use Propanil (Stan 1734), Tamarice or
Propanil-Bentzon (Basagram) 14 to 21 days after planting at the rate of 3 kg
a.i. (10 liter tin) per hectare. With a knapsack sprayer, use 220 ec of
Propanil or Tamarice, except Basagram which should be used at the rate of 150
cc, in 10 liters of water. Any resistant weed species or newly germinating
weeds like corn grass Rottboellia cochinchinensis should be roguecl. A weed-free
seed-bed at planting also contributes to the effectiveness of the herbicides.
Post-emergence: Apply RonstarTM (PL) 14 to 21 days after planting at the rate of
5-6 litres/ha. Use Propanil (Stan 1734), Tamarice or
Propanil-Bentzon (Basagram) 14 to 21 days after planting at the rate of 3 kg
a.i. (10 liter tin) per hectare. With a knapsack sprayer, use 220 ec of
Propanil or Tamarice, except Basagram which should be used at the rate of 150
cc, in 10 liters of water. Any resistant weed species or newly germinating
weeds like corn grass Rottboellia cochinchinensis should be roguecl. A weed-free
seed-bed at planting also contributes to the effectiveness of the herbicides.
Pests
TERMITES
i.
Preventive: Destroy all
dead woods and
plant residues by burning. Locate termite mounds in
surrounding bush and destroy.
ii.
Control: Spray Nogos 50 at the rate of 30 ml per 4.51 (one gallon) of
water. Nine litres (two gallons) of solution are sufficient to destroy a
termite mound.
ARMY WORM
In case of an attack, spray Gammalin 20 or Carbaryl (Vetox 85) at
the rate of 1.68 kg in 225 liters gallons) of water per hectare (i.e. six
levels of empty large match box in 9 liters (2 gallons) of water.
the rate of 1.68 kg in 225 liters gallons) of water per hectare (i.e. six
levels of empty large match box in 9 liters (2 gallons) of water.
VERTEBRATES
Keep 2 to 3 metre border
round the field free from grass, weed and burn thrash to control rodents. Build
bamboo or palm frond fence (if possible), around the field immediately after
planting. Create openings at. short intervals and place traps in the openings.
If rats and grass cutters become troublesome, kill them with snap traps. Use
scaring devices to control birds. Employ human scarcrs to drive birds from
farms from 6 am to 7 pm first two weeks after planting, and from heading to
harvesting. Use traditional means where it is effective or plant contiguous
fields.
round the field free from grass, weed and burn thrash to control rodents. Build
bamboo or palm frond fence (if possible), around the field immediately after
planting. Create openings at. short intervals and place traps in the openings.
If rats and grass cutters become troublesome, kill them with snap traps. Use
scaring devices to control birds. Employ human scarcrs to drive birds from
farms from 6 am to 7 pm first two weeks after planting, and from heading to
harvesting. Use traditional means where it is effective or plant contiguous
fields.
Harvesting
Harvest when 80 percent of
the grains have turned straw colour to avoid shattering.
the grains have turned straw colour to avoid shattering.
THRESHING
Thresh immediately after
harvest to avoid losses. Use wacking frames or mechanical devices, but avoid
threshing on bare floor. Thresh on a mat or tarpaulin over concrete floor by
Hailing (i.e. beating rice against the floor, or against a stick or drum).
Thresh carefully and avoid dehusking the grains. Damaged grains become stained
and coloured after parboiling and milling.
harvest to avoid losses. Use wacking frames or mechanical devices, but avoid
threshing on bare floor. Thresh on a mat or tarpaulin over concrete floor by
Hailing (i.e. beating rice against the floor, or against a stick or drum).
Thresh carefully and avoid dehusking the grains. Damaged grains become stained
and coloured after parboiling and milling.
Expected Yield
If above recommendations are
followed, and rainfall is adequate, an average yield of 1.5-2.0 t/ha could be
obtained.
followed, and rainfall is adequate, an average yield of 1.5-2.0 t/ha could be
obtained.
Drying
Dry paddy properly to a safe
moisture content of 13-14 percent, by spreading on clean concrete floor, mat or
tarpaulin. Sun-dry slowly for 2-3 DAYS Lo reduce breakage during milling. On a
clear bright day, sun- dry for one day only by spreading paddy thinly on clean
concrete floor, mat or tarpaulin. Use mechanical drier if possible.
moisture content of 13-14 percent, by spreading on clean concrete floor, mat or
tarpaulin. Sun-dry slowly for 2-3 DAYS Lo reduce breakage during milling. On a
clear bright day, sun- dry for one day only by spreading paddy thinly on clean
concrete floor, mat or tarpaulin. Use mechanical drier if possible.
Storage
Store in cool, dry
rodent-proof conditions. Infested paddy should be fumigated with phostoxin in
air-tight containers at the rate of one tablet per jute bag (100 kg paddy) or
10-15 tablets per ton of paddy.
rodent-proof conditions. Infested paddy should be fumigated with phostoxin in
air-tight containers at the rate of one tablet per jute bag (100 kg paddy) or
10-15 tablets per ton of paddy.
Processing
i.
Parboiling: Soak paddy in hot water at yooC for 5 to 6 hours. Discard all
floating empty grains. Parboil rice by steaming soaked paddy put in a jute bag
for 10 to 16 minutes by suspending the bag over steaming water in a drum. Stop
parboiling when rice husks start to split open. Chalky grains or white centers
indicate incomplete parboiling, which may cause breakage of grains during
milling.
ii.
Milling: Mill rice in a two-storage milling machine. Always mill one pure
variety at a time.
LOWLAND RICE PRODUCTION
Major lowland production
constraints
constraints
Bio tic
• Weeds
• Insects:
– Africanrice gallmidge (AfRGM)
– Stem borers
• Diseases
– Rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV)
– Blast
– Sheath rot
– Smut
Abiotic
• Drought/flooding
• Low soil fertility (P and N deficiencies)
• Iron toxicity.
• Salinity/alkalinity problems in the
irrigated lowland production
irrigated lowland production
Choice of land
•
Choose fertile land with
good water retention capacity (contain some clay and/or organic matter, i.e.
loamy soil); clayed soils arc most desirable.
Choose fertile land with
good water retention capacity (contain some clay and/or organic matter, i.e.
loamy soil); clayed soils arc most desirable.
•
Heavy soils of valleys andfadamas
are preferred.
Heavy soils of valleys andfadamas
are preferred.
•
Consult Soil
Survey and Testing
Service of the Institute
of Agricultural Research and Training (IAR&T), Ibadan or any other
reputable soil-testing unit
if growing rice for
one or more consecutive years on the same piece of
land.
Consult Soil
Survey and Testing
Service of the Institute
of Agricultural Research and Training (IAR&T), Ibadan or any other
reputable soil-testing unit
if growing rice for
one or more consecutive years on the same piece of
land.
Recommended lowland
varieties
varieties
•
Early maturing (<9O-ioo
days): FARO 44 (SIPI) and ‘etumbe’ (local).
Early maturing (<9O-ioo
days): FARO 44 (SIPI) and ‘etumbe’ (local).
•
Mediummaturing (100-120
days): FARO21, 26, 29, 52 (WITA 4), 57TOX 4004-43-1-2-1, and others.
Mediummaturing (100-120
days): FARO21, 26, 29, 52 (WITA 4), 57TOX 4004-43-1-2-1, and others.
•
SUAKOKO 8 and FARO 15:
Suitable for iron toxic areas.
SUAKOKO 8 and FARO 15:
Suitable for iron toxic areas.
•
Late maturing (>12O
days): FARO 10, 12, 13, 16, 17, 19, 24, 28, and others.
Late maturing (>12O
days): FARO 10, 12, 13, 16, 17, 19, 24, 28, and others.
•
Gall midge-affected areas:
Cisadane (FARO 51).
Gall midge-affected areas:
Cisadane (FARO 51).
Choice of seed
•
Use good
quality seeds with
no insect damage
and no contaminants (weed seeds,
stones, other seed types) with high percentage of viability (>8()%).
Use good
quality seeds with
no insect damage
and no contaminants (weed seeds,
stones, other seed types) with high percentage of viability (>8()%).
Sources to contact for good
quality seed
quality seed
•
State Agricultural
Development Project (ADP) that includes rice in its production programs.
State Agricultural
Development Project (ADP) that includes rice in its production programs.
•
River Basin Development
Authority.
River Basin Development
Authority.
•
Branch office of the National
Agricultural Seed Council.
Branch office of the National
Agricultural Seed Council.
•
Seed company.
Seed company.
•
Other rice farmers.
Other rice farmers.
•
WARDA-Nigeria.
WARDA-Nigeria.
Seed dormancy
•
Dormancy is the failure of
good quality mature seeds to germinate under favorable conditions. Dormancy of
freshly harvested seed should be broken by using heat treatment at 5O°C in an oven if
available or by placing the seeds on a plastic sheet and covering with itself
or another under direct sunlight for i or 2 days. Acid treatment may also be
used.
Dormancy is the failure of
good quality mature seeds to germinate under favorable conditions. Dormancy of
freshly harvested seed should be broken by using heat treatment at 5O°C in an oven if
available or by placing the seeds on a plastic sheet and covering with itself
or another under direct sunlight for i or 2 days. Acid treatment may also be
used.
•
Acid treatment: soak seeds
for 16 to 24 hours in 6 ml of concentrated nitric acid (69% HNOs) per liter of
water for every i kg of newly-harvested seeds. After soaking, drain acid
solution off and sun-dry the seeds for 3 to 5 days to a moisture content of
14%. Store in dry conditions for sowing.
Acid treatment: soak seeds
for 16 to 24 hours in 6 ml of concentrated nitric acid (69% HNOs) per liter of
water for every i kg of newly-harvested seeds. After soaking, drain acid
solution off and sun-dry the seeds for 3 to 5 days to a moisture content of
14%. Store in dry conditions for sowing.
•
Conduct germination test on
seeds to establish rates to use based on seed viability.
Conduct germination test on
seeds to establish rates to use based on seed viability.
Seed viability testing and
seed requirement
seed requirement
i.
Use only filled grains of
quality for sowing: add water to seeds and discard all empty grains that float
in water.
ii.
When the seed viability is
not known, carry out a simple seed viability test to guide the actual seeds
required for sowing,
When the seed viability is
not known, carry out a simple seed viability test to guide the actual seeds
required for sowing,
iii.
Place moistened tissue paper
(preferably filter paper, if available in a
dish with lid
(use Petri-dish if available)
and put in
100 ramdomly selected filled seeds. Cover and keep the dish at room temperature
for 4-5 days to allow germination.
Place moistened tissue paper
(preferably filter paper, if available in a
dish with lid
(use Petri-dish if available)
and put in
100 ramdomly selected filled seeds. Cover and keep the dish at room temperature
for 4-5 days to allow germination.
iv.
Then count the number of
sprouting seeds (only those with shoots >i cm). If 75 germinating seeds are
counted, it means the viability rate is 75%(%germinat:on).
Then count the number of
sprouting seeds (only those with shoots >i cm). If 75 germinating seeds are
counted, it means the viability rate is 75%(%germinat:on).
v.
If the seed rate is 80
kg/ha, the actual quantity of seeds to be used for sowing is calculated thus:
If the seed rate is 80
kg/ha, the actual quantity of seeds to be used for sowing is calculated thus:
Seed required (kg/ha) = 